Law

It must be given only at the desire of the promiser

An act constituting consideration must have been done at the desire of the promiser. Thus an act done at the desire of the third party or without the desire of the promiser cannot constitute a valid consideration.

If “A” does any act without the desire of “B” or without B`s offering , it will not be amount to consideration. There should be proposal for an acceptance for an acceptance to follow and then , when the other person does something is consequence of such a proposal , acceptance would be valid and such an act or forbearance of doing or not doing something will be consideration.

FOR EX>>>

A`s son is lost and B goes in search of him. Can B claim remunation from A for these three consideration

1. If B does this act reluntarity

2. If B does this act at the request of A

3. If B does this act at the request of C

VOLUNTARILY -> B cannot claim remuneration from A because HE HAS DONE AT a`S REQUEST

DOES WORK AT THE REQUEST OF a--à b CAN CLAIM remuneration from A coz he has done at the request of of A

B DOES AT THE REQUEST OF Cà b CANNOT CLAIM REMU FROM a COS HE HAS NOT DONE AT A`S REQUEST.

Case STUDY

Once there was an empty plot. Collector asked the builder to build the shop on the empty plot. Builder built the shop but collector paid niominal price for the shopsto the builder. Collecetoer had asked the builder to collect theremaining money from the shop keepers who would occupy the shops. When the shops were sold to the shopkeepers then the builder had asked them the money. Shopkeepers refused to give the money. Then the builder had filed the case against the shopkeepers. The judgment favored the shopkeepers because the builder had built the shops at the request of the collectors and not at the desire of the shopkeepers.

It notes

What is Computer Networking?

Answer: In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.

LAN - Local Area Network: A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

WAN - Wide Area Network: As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

Other Types of Area Networks

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these others:

· Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology

· Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a government body or large corporation.

· Campus Area Network - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business campus.

· Storage Area Network - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.

· System Area Network - links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

Network Design

Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.

A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.

Network Protocols

In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.

Definition: A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Protocols for computer networking all generally use packet switching techniques to send and receive messages in the form of packets.

Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance network communication. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for specific purposes and environments.

Wired vs Wireless Networking

Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.

The term client-server refers to a popular model for computer networking that utilizes client and server devices each designed for specific purposes. The client-server model can be used on the Internet as well as local area networks (LANs). Examples of client-server systems on the Internet include Web browsers and Web servers, FTP clients and servers, and DNS.

Client and Server Devices

Client/server networking grew in popularity many years ago as personal computers (PCs) became the common alternative to older mainframe computers. Client devices are typically PCs with network software applications installed that request and receive information over the network. Mobile devices as well as desktop computers can both function as clients.

A server device typically stores files and databases including more complex applications like Web sites. Server devices often feature higher-powered central processors, more memory, and larger disk drives than clients.

Client-Server Applications

The client-server model distinguishes between applications as well as devices. Network clients make requests to a server by sending messages, and servers respond to their clients by acting on each request and returning results. One server generally supports numerous clients, and multiple servers can be networked together in a pool to handle the increased processing load as the number of clients grows.

A client computer and a server computer are usually two separate devices, each customized for their designed purpose. For example, a Web client works best with a large screen display, while a Web server does not need any display at all and can be located anywhere in the world. However, in some cases a given device can function both as a client and a server for the same application. Likewise, a device that is a server for one application can simultaneously act as a client to other servers, for different applications.

[Some of the most popular applications on the Internet follow the client-server model including email, FTP and Web services. Each of these clients features a user interface (either graphic- or text-based) and a client application that allows the user to connect to servers. In the case of email and FTP, users enter a computer name (or sometimes an IP address) into the interface to set up connections to the server.

Local Client-Server Networks

Many home networks utilize client-server systems without even realizing it. Broadband routers, for example, contain DHCP servers that provide IP addresses to the home computers (DHCP clients). Other types of network servers found in home include print servers and backup servers.

Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer and Other Models

The client-server model was originally developed to allow more users to share access to database applications. Compared to the mainframe approach, client-server offers improved scalability because connections can be made as needed rather than being fixed. The client-server model also supports modular applications that can make the job of creating software easier. In so-called "two-tier" and "three-tier" types of client-server systems, software applications are separated into modular pieces, and each piece is installed on clients or servers specialized for that subsystem.

Client-server is just one approach to managing network applications The primary alternative, peer-to-peer networking, models all devices as having equivalent capability rather than specialized client or server roles. Compared to client-server, peer to peer networks offer some advantages such as more flexibility in growing the system to handle large number of clients. Client-server networks generally offer advantages in keeping data secure.

Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers share equivalent responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer networking) differs from client-server networking, where certain devices have responsibility for providing or "serving" data and other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those servers.

Characteristics of a Peer Network

Peer to peer networking is common on small local area networks (LANs), particularly home networks. Both wired and wireless home networks can be configured as peer to peer environments.

Computers in a peer to peer network run the same networking protocols and software. Peer networks are also often situated physically near to each other, typically in homes, small businesses or schools. Some peer networks, however, utilize the Internet and are geographically dispersed worldwide.

Home networks that utilize broadband routers are hybrid peer to peer and client-server environments. The router provides centralized Internet connection sharing, but file, printer and other resource sharing is managed directly between the local computers involved.

Peer to Peer and P2P Networks

Internet-based peer to peer networks emerged in the 1990s due to the development of P2P file sharing networks like Napster. Technically, many P2P networks (including the original Napster) are not pure peer networks but rather hybrid designs as they utilize central servers for some functions such as search.

Peer to Peer and Ad Hoc Wi-Fi Networks

Wi-Fi wireless networks support so-called ad hoc connections between devices. Ad hoc Wi-Fi networks are pure peer to peer compared to those utilizing wireless routers as an intermediate device.

Benefits of a Peer to Peer Network

You can configure computers in peer to peer workgroups to allow sharing of files, printers and other resources across all of the devices. Peer networks allow data to be shared easily in both directions, whether for downloads to your computer or uploads from your computer.

On the Internet, peer to peer networks handle a very high volume of file sharing traffic by distributing the load across many computers. Because they do not rely exclusively on central servers, P2P networks both scale better and are more resilient than client-server networks in case of failures or traffic bottlenecks.

What is internet?

Definition: The term Internet today refers to the global network of public computers running Internet Protocol. The Internet supports the public WWW and many special-purpose client/server software systems. Internet technology also supports many private corporate intranets and private home LANs.

The term "Internet" was originally coined in the 1970s. At that time, only the very meager beginnings of a public global network were in place. Throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, a number of smaller national networks like ARPANET, BITNET, CSNET, and NSFNET evolved, merged, or dissolved, then finally joined with non-US networks to form the global Internet.

Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used network protocols. Besides Internet Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. These higher level protocols interact more closely with applications like Web browsers while lower-level protocols interact with network adapters and other computer hardware.

Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed specifically for use by network routers on the Internet. Common routing protocols include EIGRP, OSPF and BGP.

How Network Protocols Are Implemented

Modern operating systems like Microsoft Windows contain built-in services or daemons that implement support for some network protocols. Applications like Web browsers contain software libraries that support the high level protocols necessary for that application to function. For some lower level TCP/IP and routing protocols, support is implemented in directly hardware (silicon chipsets) for improved performance.

It notes

BIOTECH / BIOINFORMATICS COMPLIANCES BY InfoTech

HIPAA - The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996
HIPPA-INFO.com - Information on HIPAA

• HIPAA – Introduction
• HIPAA – Laws
• What is expected from HIPAA compliance?
• HIPAA- Software
• Rules of HIPAA
• HIPAA and Information Technology
• HIPAA Compliant Medical Billing
• HIPAA – Ensuring Compliances
• HIPAA at your Rescue
• Medical Imaging and HIPAA
• Benefits of HIPAA
• A Guide to HIPAA
• Penalties for Violations
• Aims of HIPAA
• HIPAA – Short term Insurance Cover

›› HIPAA and Information Technology

The complexities of The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) framework of rules and regulations together with the stringent security and privacy requirements, has made Information technology the hero of HIPAA compliance. Without the Information technology getting involved in HIPAA compliances, ensuring compliance to HIPAA would be Impossible. For ensuring the privacy and security of patient data, IT has come forward with HIPAA complaint software which employ highly complex digital encryption technologies normally never used in business environment to provide military grade security to the data.

Technological advancements like EDI (electronic data interchange) has provided so much convenience to the service providers who can now submit their claims to the insurers through EDI and even receive payments directly into their banks. All major hospitals and health care provided have medical records of their patient s stored in electronic format. How HIPAA requires that these systems which handle the patients records must comply with the HIPAA security and privacy regulations. Here comes the HIPAA compliant EMR or the electronic medical records software which keeps all the patient histories in digital format accessible to all relevant and authorized persons as per the guide lines of HIPAA. Even four after the HIPAA has come into force; only seven percent of the Hospitals have HIPAA compliant EMR.

At the time when The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) came into force the technology was not so advanced. All it provided was for the use of EDI and data security guaranteeing privacy of the patient’s data and provisioning of a regulatory framework for the management of a patient’s data. After a decade of HIPAA compliance we can look ford to web enabling HIPAA covered entities so that the patient need not even visit the medical office for verifying his own data.

Copyright © 2005 (HIPAA-INFO.com)

ISO/IEC 10918-2:1995

Information technology -- Digital compression and coding of continuous-tone still images: Compliance testing

ISO/IEC 10918-4:1999

Information technology -- Digital compression and coding of continuous-tone still images: Registration of JPEG profiles, SPIFF profiles, SPIFF tags, SPIFF colour spaces, APPn markers, SPIFF compression types and Registration Authorities (REGAUT)

Security Assessment Vulnerability Management Risk Management Compliance Management Codescan Website Security Compliances & Best Practices Readiness Reviews Back to What We Do			Compliances & Best Practices Compliances & Best Practices Readiness Reviews Compliance and practice standards investigation is a crucial factor in any successful business security plan. Security Assessment Inc will assist businesses in every step of their compliance works. Basel II formulates broad supervisory standards and guidelines and recommends statements of best practice in the expectation that individual authorities will take steps to implement them through detailed arrangements COBIT a standard for good Information Technology (IT) security and control practices. COSO an independent private sector initiative which studied the causal factors that can lead to fraudulent financial reporting and developed recommendations for public companies and their independent auditors. Bill-198 companies trading on the Canadian or American stock exchange, requires management file an internal control report with its annual report. HIPAA an act to ensure that customers are able to switch between health insurance providers as smoothly as possible without the unavailability, total loss or loss of integrity within their health data. ISO 17799, BS7799 A comprehensive set of controls comprising best practices in information security. ISO 27799 A security management in health using ISO/IEC 17799. NIST a non-regulatory federal agency within the U.S. to develop and promote measurement, standards, and technology to enhance productivity, facilitate trade, and improve the quality of life. NSA coordinates, directs, and performs highly specialized activities to protect U.S. government information systems and produce foreign signals intelligence information. PHIPA A set of regulations that allows the freedom of information and the protection of privacy. PIPEDA An Act to support and promote electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances. Sarbanes Oxley (SOX) A violation of Rules of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board is treated as a violation of the '34 Act, giving rise to the same penalties that may be imposed for violations of that Act. SANS develops, maintains, and makes available at no cost, the largest collection of research documents about various aspects of information security, and it operates the Internet's early warning system - Internet Storm Center. Contact Us to book your free no obligation appointment and review how our services can benefit your business in detail.

Copyright 2005, Security Assessment Inc.^TM All rights reserved.

It notes

Classification of computer networks

[By network layer

Computer networks may be classified according to the network layer at which they operate according to some basic reference models that are considered to be standards in the industry such as the seven layer OSI reference model and the four layer Internet Protocol Suite model. In practice, the great majority of networks use the Internet Protocol (IP) as their network layer. Some networks, however, are using IP Version 6 IPv6, usually in coexistence with IPv4. IPv6 use is often experimental. it is an interconnection of a group of computers in other words.

By scale

Computer networks may be classified according to the scale: Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan area network (MAN), or Wide area network (WAN). As Ethernet increasingly is the standard interface to networks, these distinctions are more important to the network administrator than the end user. Network administrators may have to tune the network, based on delay that derives from distance, to achieve the desired Quality of Service (QoS). The primary difference in the networks is the size.

By connection method

Wireless LAN technology is built to connect devices without wiring. These devices use a radio frequency to connect.

By functional relationship

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist between the elements of the network, for example Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architectures.

By network topology

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-bus network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.

Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct.

By protocol

Computer networks may be classified according to the communications protocol that is being used on the network. See the articles on List of network protocol stacks and List of network protocols for more information.

Types of networks:

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that may be used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, or scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically within about 20-30 feet (approximately 4-6 Meters). PANs can be used for communication among the individual devices (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink).

Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB and FireWire. A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as IrDA and Bluetooth.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building. Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a library will have a LAN for users to connect to the internet. All of the computers in the library are connected through a system of hubs and eventually connect to the internet. The hub is just like what it sounds. A bicycle wheel uses a hub and spokes - all the spokes connect to a central point - the hub.

LANs use different technologies to link computers together. Depending on the circumstance, the computers in the network might be connected using cables and hubs. Other networks might be connected strictly wirelessly. It depends on the number of PCs that you are trying to connect, the physical layout of your workspace, and the various needs that you have as you develop your network.

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (wide area networks), include their much higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Current LAN technologies generally operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s. Inverse multiplexing is commonly used to build a faster aggregate from slower physical streams, such as bringing 4 Gbit/s aggregate stream into a computer or network element with four 1 Gbit/s interfaces.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one country to another and one continent to another continent) and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

The highest data rate commercially available, as a single bitstream, on WANs is 40 Gbit/s, principally used between large service providers. Wavelength Division Multiplexing, however, can put multiple 10 or 40 Gbyte/s streams onto the same optical fiber.

Internetwork

Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them:

• Intranet
• Extranet
• "The" Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet itself is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although the Internet may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Intranet

An intranet is a set of interconnected networks, using the Internet Protocol and uses IP-based tools such as web browsers, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to the rest of the world, and allows only specific users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of a company or other enterprise.

Extranet

A extranet is network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g., a company's customers may be provided access to some part of its intranet thusly creating an extranet while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN, because an extranet must have at least one connection with an outside network.

Basic Hardware Components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.11) or optical cable ("optical fiber").

Network Interface Cards

A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.

Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.

Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.

Hubs

A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied the packets to all the ports of the hub. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the frame does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub. ^[2]

Bridges

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as does a hub. but learns which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

1. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
2. Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
3. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs

Switches

Switches are a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Switches may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is called a multilayer switch.

Overemphasizing the ill-defined term "switch" often leads to confusion when first trying to understand networking. Many experienced network designers and operators recommend starting with the logic of devices dealing with only one protocol level, not all of which are covered by OSI. Multilayer device selection is an advanced topic that may lead to selecting particular implementations, but multilayer switching is simply not a real-world design concept.

Routers Routers are the networking device that forwards data packets along networks by using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers work at the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. Routers also provide interconnectivity between like and unlike media.^[3] This is accomplished by examining the Header of a data packet.^[4] They use routing protocols such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Some DSL and Cable Modems have been integrated with routers for home consumers.